Everything about Scorpion totally explained
Scorpions are eight-legged
carnivorous arthropods. Members of the order
Scorpiones within the class
Arachnida, there are about 2000 species of scorpions. They are found widely distributed south of
49° N, except
New Zealand and
Antarctica. The northernmost part of the world where scorpions live in the wild is
Sheerness on the
Isle of Sheppey in the
UK, where a small colony of
Euscorpius flavicaudis has been resident since the 1860s.
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Anatomy
The body of a scorpion is divided into two parts: the
cephalothorax (also called the prosoma) and the
abdomen (opisthosoma). The abdomen consists of the
mesosoma and the
metasoma.
Cephalothorax
The cephalothorax, also called the prosoma, is the scorpion's “head”, comprising the
carapace,
eyes,
chelicerae (mouth parts),
pedipalps (
claws) and four pairs of
walking legs. The scorpion's exoskeleton is thick and durable, providing good protection from predators.
Mesosoma
The mesosoma, the front half of the abdomen, is made up of six segments. The first segment contains the
sexual organs as well as a pair of vestigial and modified appendages forming a structure called the genital operculum. The second segment bears a pair of featherlike
sensory organs known as the
pectines; the final four segments each contain a pair of
book lungs. The mesosoma is
armored with
chitinous plates, known as
tergites on the upper surface and
sternites on the lower surface.
Metasoma
The metasoma, the scorpion's
tail, comprises six segments (the first tail segment looks like a last mesosoman segment), the last containing the scorpion's
anus and bearing the
telson (the
sting). The telson, in turn, consists of the
vesicle, which holds a pair of
venom glands, and the hypodermic aculeus, the venom-injecting barb.
On rare occasions, scorpions can be born with two metasomata (
tails). Two-tailed scorpions are not a different species, merely a genetic abnormality.
Reproduction
Most scorpions reproduce sexually, and most species have male and female individuals. However, some species, such as
Hottentotta hottentotta,
Hottentotta caboverdensis,
Liocheles australasiae,
Tityus columbianus,
Tityus metuendus,
Tityus serrulatus,
Tityus stigmurus,
Tityus trivittatus, and
Tityus urugayensis, reproduce through
parthenogenesis, a process in which unfertilized eggs develop into living
embryos. Parthenogenic reproduction starts following the scorpion's final moult to maturity and continues thereafter.
Sexual reproduction is accomplished by the transfer of a
spermatophore from the
male to the
female; scorpions possess a complex
courtship and
mating ritual to effect this transfer. Mating starts with the
male and
female locating and identifying each other using a mixture of
pheromones and
vibrational communication; once they've satisfied each other that they're of opposite sex and of the correct species, mating can commence.
The courtship starts with the male grasping the female’s pedipalps with his own; the pair then perform a "dance" called the "promenade à deux". In reality this is the male leading the female around searching for a suitable place to deposit his
spermatophore. The courtship ritual can involve several other behaviours such as
juddering and a cheliceral kiss, in which the male's chelicerae--clawlike mouthparts--grasp the female's in a smaller more intimate version of the male's grasping the female's pedipalps and in some cases injecting a small amount of his venom into her pedipalp or on the edge of her cephalothorax, probably as a means of pacifying the female.
When he's identified a suitable location, he deposits the spermatophore and then guides the female over it. This allows the spermatophore to enter her
genital opercula, which triggers release of the sperm, thus fertilizing the female. The mating process can take from 1 to 25+ hours and depends on the ability of the male to find a suitable place to deposit his spermatophore. If mating goes on for too long, the female may eventually lose interest, breaking off the process.
Once the mating is complete, the male and female will separate. The male will generally retreat quickly, most likely to avoid being cannibalized by the female, although sexual
cannibalism is infrequent with scorpions.
Birth and development
Unlike the majority of
arachnid species, scorpions are
viviparous. The young are born one by one, and the brood is carried about on its mother's back until the young have undergone at least one
moult. Before the first moult, scorplings can't survive naturally without the mother, since they depend on her for protection and to regulate their moisture levels. Especially in species which display more advanced sociability (e.g
Pandinus spp.), the young/mother association can continue for an extended period of time. The size of the litter depends on the species and environmental factors, and can range from two to over a hundred scorplings. The average litter however, consists of around 8 scorplings.
The young generally resemble their parents. Growth is accomplished by periodic shedding of the exoskeleton (
ecdysis). A scorpion's developmental progress is measured in
instars (how many moults it has undergone). Scorpions typically require between five and seven moults to reach maturity. Moulting is effected by means of a split in the old
exoskeleton which takes place just below the edge of the carapace (at the front of the prosoma). The scorpion then emerges from this split; the pedipalps and legs are first removed from the old exoskeleton, followed eventually by the
metasoma. When it emerges, the scorpion’s new
exoskeleton is soft, making the scorpion highly vulnerable to attack. The scorpion must constantly stretch while the new exoskeleton hardens to ensure that it can move when the hardening is complete. The process of hardening is called
sclerotization. The new exoskeleton doesn't fluoresce; as
sclerotization occurs, the fluorescence gradually returns.
Life and habits
Scorpions have quite variable lifespans and the actual lifespan of most species isn't known. The age range appears to be approximately 4-25 years (25 years being the maximum reported life span in the species
Hadrurus arizonensis). Lifespan of
Hadogenes species in the wild is estimated at 25-30 years.
Scorpions prefer to live in areas where the temperatures range from 20°C to 37°C (68°F to 99°F), but may survive from freezing temperatures to the desert heat. Scorpions of the genus
Scorpiops living in high Asian mountains,
bothriurid scorpions from Patagonia and small
Euscorpius scorpions from middle Europe can all survive winter temperatures of about -25°C.
They are
nocturnal and
fossorial, finding shelter during the day in the relative cool of underground holes or undersides of rocks and coming out at night to hunt and feed. Scorpions exhibit
photophobic behavior, primarily to evade detection by their predators such as birds, centipedes, lizards, mice, possums, and rats.
Scorpions are opportunistic predators of small arthropods and insects. They use their chelae (pincers) to catch the prey initially. Depending on the toxicity of their venom and size of their claws, that'll then either crush the prey or inject it with
neurotoxic venom. This will kill or paralyze the prey so the scorpion can eat it. Scorpions have a relatively unique style of eating using
chelicerae, small claw-like structures that protrude from the mouth that are unique to the
Chelicerata among arthropods. The chelicerae, which are very sharp, are used to pull small amounts of food off the prey item for digestion. Scorpions can only digest food in a liquid form; any solid matter (fur,
exoskeleton, etc) is disposed of by the scorpion.
Venom
All scorpion species possess
venom. In general, scorpion venom is described as
neurotoxic in nature. One exception to this generalization is
Hemiscorpius lepturus which possesses
cytotoxic venom. The neurotoxins consist of a variety of small
proteins as well as sodium and potassium
cations, which serve to interfere with neurotransmission in the victim. Scorpions use their venom to kill or paralyze their prey so that it can be eaten; in general it's fast-acting, allowing for effective prey capture. The effects of the sting can be severe.
Scorpion venoms are optimized for action upon other
arthropods and therefore most scorpions are relatively harmless to
humans; stings produce only local effects (such as pain, numbness or swelling). A few scorpion species, however, mostly in the family
Buthidae, can be dangerous to humans. Among the most dangerous are
Leiurus quinquestriatus, otherwise ominously known as the deathstalker, which has the most potent venom in the family, and members of the genera
Parabuthus,
Tityus,
Centruroides, and especially
Androctonus, which also have powerful venom. The scorpion which is responsible for the most human deaths is
Androctonus australis, or the yellow fat-tailed scorpion, of
North Africa. The toxicity of
A. australis's venom is roughly half that of
L. quinquestriatus, but despite a common misconception
A. australis doesn't inject noticeably more venom into its prey. The higher death count is simply due to its being found more commonly, especially near humans. Human deaths normally occur in the young, elderly, or infirm; scorpions are generally unable to deliver enough venom to kill healthy adults. Some people, however, may be
allergic to the venom of some species. Depending on the severity of the allergy, the scorpion's sting may cause
anaphylaxis and death. A primary symptom of a scorpion sting is numbing at the injection site, sometimes lasting for several days. Scorpions are generally harmless and timid, and only voluntarily use their sting for killing prey, defending themselves or in territorial disputes with other scorpions. Generally, that'll run from danger or remain still.
It should be noted that the family Buthidae, while containing perhaps the highest number of dangerous species, also contains many species that are not thought to be medically significant.
Scorpions are able to regulate how much venom is injected with each sting using striated muscles in the stinger, the usual amount being between 0.1 and 0.6 mg. There is also evidence to suggest that scorpions restrict the use of their venom using it only to subdue large prey, or prey that struggles. It has been found that scorpions have two types of venom: a translucent, weaker venom designed to stun only, and an opaque, more potent venom designed to kill heavier threats. This is likely because it's expensive in terms of energy for a scorpion to produce venom, and because it may take several days for a scorpion to replenish its venom supply once it has been exhausted.
There is currently no scorpion equivalent of the
Schmidt Sting Pain Index, because nobody has yet classified the levels of pain inflicted by different scorpion stings. This is probably because of the risk involved with some species, such as
Androctonus australis or
Leiurus quinquestriatus. However, envenomation by a mildly venomous species like
Pandinus imperator is similar to a bee sting in terms of the pain and swelling that results. A sting on the
thumb from a relatively non-dangerous scorpion often feels like the victim has accidentally struck their thumb with a hammer whilst driving in a nail. A sting on the thumb from a truly dangerous scorpion can feel much worse, as though the victim had hammered a nail right
through their thumb. It should be noted that the physical effects of a sting from a medically significant scorpion are not limited to the pain inflicted: there can be
bradycardia,
tachycardia or in severe cases
pulmonary edema.
The stings of North American scorpions are rarely serious and usually result in pain, minimal swelling, tenderness, and warmth at the sting site. However, the
Arizona bark scorpion Centruroides sculpturatus, which is found in Arizona and New Mexico and on the California side of the Colorado River, has a much more toxic sting. The sting is painful, sometimes causing numbness or tingling in the area around the sting. Serious symptoms are more common in children and include abnormal head, eye, and neck movements; increased saliva production; sweating; and restlessness. Some people develop severe involuntary twitching and jerking of muscles. Breathing difficulties may occur. The
Southeastern yellow scorpion which lives in
Tennessee,
North Carolina,
Georgia,
South Carolina,
Florida,
Virginia, and
Alabama, the
Swampland scorpion of
Louisiana,
Mississippi, and
Arkansas, and the
Northern plain scorpion of
North Dakota,
South Dakota,
Minnesota,
Canada and
Montana are also very deadly. The Northern plain scorpion kills few people because it lives in sparsely populated areas. Swampland scorpions kill people in rural areas, but don't kill many people in areas outside cities like
New Orleans, Louisiana,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana,
Jackson, Mississippi, and
Little Rock, Arkansas. Most deaths from swampland scorpions are in Mississippi. The Southeastern yellow scorpions kill the most people because of a large area they live in, the most toxic, and the most aggresive. Most deaths from stings from Southeastern yellows are in North Carolina.
The stings of most North American scorpions require no special treatment. Placing an ice cube on the wound reduces pain, as does an ointment containing a combination of an antihistamine, an analgesic, and a corticosteroid. Arizona bark scorpion, Northern plain scorpion, Swampland scorpion, and Southeastern yellow scorpion stings require the use of sedatives, such as midazolam, given intravenously. Antivenom relieves symptoms, but it may cause a serious allergic reaction or serum sickness. Antivenom for Southeastern yellow scorpion may not work in the most serious stings.
Professor
Moshe Gueron was the first to investigate the cardiovascular effects of a severe scorpion sting. Thousands of stung patients were reviewed. Thirty-four patients with severe scorpion stings were reviewed and pertinent data related to the cardiovascular system such as hypertension, peripheral vascular collapse, congestive heart failure or pulmonary edema were analyzed. The electrocardiograms of 28 patients were reviewed; 14 patients showed "early myocardial infarction-like" pattern. The urinary catecholamine metabolites were investigated in 12 patients with scorpion sting. Vanylmandelic acid was elevated in seven patients and the total free epinephrine and norepinephrine in eight. Six of these 12 patients displayed the electrocardiographic "myocardial infarction-like" pattern. Nine patients died and the pathologic lesions of the myocardium were reviewed in seven. Also, Gueron reported five cases of Severe Myocardial damage and heart failure in Scorpion sting from
Beer-Sheba,
Israel. He described hypertension, pulmonary oedema with hypertension, hypotension, pulmonary oedema with hypotension and rhythm disturbances as five different syndromes that may dominate the clinical picture in scorpion sting victim. He suggested that all patients with cardiac symptoms should be admitted to an intensive cardiac unit. A few years later, in 1990, he reported poor contractility with low ejection fraction, decreased systolic left ventricular performance, lowered fractional percentage shortening observed in echocardiographic and radionuclide angiographic study. Gueron was questioned regarding the value of giving antivenom, and he replied that although it's freely available, all cases of scorpion sting are treated without it, and there hadn't been a single fatality in 1989.
Fossil record
Scorpions have been found in many
fossil records, including marine
Silurian deposits, coal deposits from the
Carboniferous Period and in
amber. They are thought to have existed in some form since about 425–450 million years ago. They are believed to have an oceanic origin, with gills and a claw-like appendage that enabled them to hold onto rocky shores or
seaweed, although the assumption that the oldest scorpions were aquatic has been questioned. Currently, 111 fossil species of scorpion are known. Unusually for arachnids, there are more species of
Palaeozoic scorpion than
Mesozoic or
Cenozoic ones.
The
eurypterids,
marine creatures which lived during the
Paleozoic era, share several physical traits with scorpions and may be closely related to them. Various species of Eurypterida could grow to be anywhere from 10 cm (4 in) to 3 m (9.75 ft) in length. However, they exhibit
anatomical differences marking them off as a group distinct from their Carboniferous and Recent relatives. Despite this, they're commonly referred to as "sea scorpions." Their legs are thought to have been short, thick, tapering and to have ended in a single strong claw; it appears that they were well-adapted for maintaining a secure hold upon rocks or seaweed against the wash of waves, like the legs of shore-
crab.
Geographical distribution
Scorpions are almost universally distributed south of 49° N, and their geographical distribution shows in many particulars a close and interesting correspondence with that of the
mammals, including their entire absence from
New Zealand. The facts of their distribution are in keeping with the hypothesis that the order originated in the
northern hemisphere and migrated southwards into the southern continent at various epochs, their absence from the countries to the north of the above-mentioned latitudes being due, no doubt, to the comparatively recent
glaciation of those areas. When they reached
Africa,
Madagascar was part of that continent; but their arrival in
Australia was subsequent to the separation of New Zealand from the Austro-Malayan area to the north of it.
In the United States, scorpions are most common in southern
Arizona and in a swath of land extending through central
Texas and central
Oklahoma. The common striped scorpion,
Centruroides vittatus, reaches from northwest
Mexico to southern
Colorado,
Kansas, southern
Missouri, and
Mississippi and
Louisiana. Species of the genus
Vaejovis are found from
Florida north to
Maryland, the Carolinas, and
Tennessee, and as far west as
Oregon and
California.
Paruroctonus boreus is found through the Northwest U.S. and into
Canada (Southern Saskatchewan, Southern Alberta and the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia). Scorpions can be found in 31 different states in the U.S., including
Hawaii (
Isometrus maculatus).
Five colonies of scorpions (
Euscorpius flavicaudis) have established themselves in southern
England having probably arrived with imported fruit from
Africa, but the number of colonies could be lower now because of the destruction of their habitats. This scorpion species is small and completely harmless to humans.
Suicide misconception
The belief that scorpions commit suicide by stinging themselves to death when surrounded by
fire is of considerable antiquity and is often prevalent where these animals exist. It is nevertheless untrue since the venom has no effect on the scorpion itself, nor on any member of the same species (unless the venom is injected directly into the scorpion's nerve ganglion—quite an unlikely event outside of the laboratory). The misconception may derive from the fact that scorpions are poikilotherms (
cold-blooded): when exposed to intense heat their metabolic processes malfunction. This causes the scorpion to spasm wildly and this spasming may appear as if the scorpion is stinging itself. It is also untrue that
alcohol will cause scorpions to sting themselves to death.
Ultraviolet light
Scorpions are also known to glow when exposed to certain wavelengths of
ultraviolet light such as that produced by a
blacklight.
Classification
This classification is based on that of Soleglad & Fet (2003), which replaced the older, unpublished classification of Stockwell. Additional taxonomic changes are from Soleglad et al. (2005).
- ORDER SCORPIONES
- Infraorder Orthosterni Pocock, 1911
- Parvorder Pseudochactida Soleglad et Fet, 2003
- Superfamily Pseudochactoidea Gromov, 1998
- Parvorder Buthida Soleglad et Fet, 2003
- Superfamily Buthoidea C. L. Koch, 1837
- Parvorder Chaerilida Soleglad et Fet, 2003
- In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh approaches mountains where scorpion-folk guard the entrance. Additionally, the Akkadians called the constellation Scorpius, Girtab, meaning "the Seizer", or "Stinger" and "Place Where One Bows Down".
- In ancient Egypt, the scorpion was associated with the god Set.
- The Falaknuma Palace of Hyderabad, India, is laid out in the shape of a scorpion with the two pincers spreading out to the north as wings to the building.
- In Greek mythology, the scorpion is conjured by the gods to hound and punish Orion. It is also said that when Perseus slew Medusa, the blood that leaked out of her severed neck turned into scorpions and snakes as it hit the ground.
- From a Biblical quotation, it's the term for a severe Roman scourge. Hard material was fixed onto multiple thongs to give them a flesh-tearing bite [1Kings 12:11: ...My father scourged you with whips; I'll scourge you with scorpions]. The choice of the name testifies how much the hellish pain caused by the small animal is to be feared.
- The Persian legendary monster manticore is often depicted with a scorpion tail.
- The scorpion is one of the symbols of the Astrological sign of Scorpio.
Further Information
Get more info on 'Scorpion'.
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